Isaac Odoi Danquah
Water Resources Engineer, Goldrain Mountain Company Limited, Koforidua, Eastern Region – Ghana.
ABSTRACT
The development, sustainance and future of every country depends on equitable, efficient and proper use of all its natural resources. So is Ghana when it comes to uses of her natural resources such as gold, bauxite, oil, water, lands and forest reserves. Gold mining business which has been in Ghana over several decades has generated Billions of pounds sterling, dollars and Cedis to the Ghanaian boosting economic development in all sectors. The inexperience and greediness of most people in Ghana recently resulted in the overexploitation of the gold resource hence water, forest and land resources in order to mine the fine natural resources – gold. This has led to destruction of a lot of these natural resources such as lands, water, forest reserves, wildlife’s and now calling for its reclamation. This is the reason for this research paper. The research sorts to establish good reclamation practices that can be used to reclaim all degradable natural resources due to illegal gold mining business in Ghana. It is established after various equitable and effective practice elaborated that, stakeholder collaboration and participation of various sectors of the economy is very necessary towards the reclamation of the natural resources destroyed by illegal gold mining activities in Ghana for now and the future.
Keywords: Gold, reclamation, natural resources, illegal mining, land, water, oil, stakeholder, forest reserves.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The country Ghana is one of the wealthiest country worldwide enriched with natural resources such as water, lands, forest reserves, gold, manganese, bauxite etc. Ghana’s enrichment with gold gave it the name Gold Coast meaning a country having gold just like the sands on the shores of the sea. This gold has been exploited over the years both through legal and
illegal means. Some of the major companies exploring this natural resources through well standard operation procedures includes AngloGold Ashanti, Gold Fields Ghana Ltd, Abosso
Goldfields Limited, Golden Star Ltd, Newmont Ghana Gold – Ahafo and Akyem, Chirano Gold Mines Ltd, Adamus Resources Limited, just to mention few. All these mining companies have
been mining the gold subjecting the processes and procedures to international mining standards. Upon seeing the money being generated by these international companies, the greediness of young guys within the country surged highly, with decision to explore the precious gold through whatever means. This resulted in surface mining on lands and water bodies in the country which has resulted in the destruction of natural resources in Ghana and needs fast drastic attention. If this is not done within the shortest possible time, there will be no lands for the exploration of gold to support the economic growth and food production for Ghana and no water to quench the thirst of future generations. There is the need for stakeholder collaboration and contribution from all benefiting bodies to save the country from this disaster before it gets out of control. The Akuffo Addo Dankwa lead government is playing its role in savaging the situation but needs other hands like able mining companies to come on board financially with their experts in the mining and engineering sector to tackle the situation for the welfare of Ghana.
There is recent heightened interest and unprecedented upsurge in the small scale mining industry in Ghana (Mining Journal, 2010; Minerals Commission, 2010; Awudi, 2002). This became very severe in 2009 – 2020 and the government needed to halt all activities of these illegal miners to help protect the country resources. The imperative role from these illegal mining is that the emissions and disposal of waste from small scale mining activities from the extraction and processing causes serious environmental problems which affect health and livelihoods of most mining communities (Agyemang, 2010; Obiri et. al., 2006). Small scale mining activities also violates human rights of residents of mining communities and sometimes adjoining communities (CHRAJ, 2008). As at 2009, the government of Ghana had granted over 200 mining license and leases, with about 128 local miners and 51 foreign miners (Mining Journal, 2010). This is what has resulted in the destruction of most natural resources (water bodies, lands, forest reserves) in 2011 within the country Ghana. It is estimated that 100,000 people are involved in the small scale mining activities in Ghana (Minerals Commission, 2010) and about 60,000 are estimated to be illegal – miners or galamsey operators (Obiri et. al., 2006). The illegal mining activities in Ghana has created jobs for thousands of Ghanaians, meanwhile it is destroying water bodies and natural resources which if not looked at with all seriousness, the country Ghana will find herself in the deep pits in the near future.
Assessing surface water in Ghana is now big problems as almost all surface water bodies have been polluted and deteriorated. The once been used by Ghana Water Company Limited for abstraction and treatment for drinking requires huge amounts of money because of the polluted nature of the water body. The most interesting thing is that people don’t care and see what is happening, all that they are interested in is the gold and the money. Where will Ghana stand to produce food and cocoa for the international market if all these lands are degraded and becomes infertile hence of no use for crop production. Will the gold money be enough to import all the food Ghanaians needs for sustenance and survival? This is a big no, hence the need to protect the natural resources for the good of all – both the gold miners and common citizens. Gold mining is a good business that generates Billions of pounds annually for economic growth but comes with repercussions and these not be toiled with if not it becomes a curse. Since gold mining in Ghana started years ago, generations have come and gone, generations will continue to come and go but this gold resource will continue to be there as this is what nature has blessed the country Ghana for her growth and sustenance hence the need to protect. Never think it’s only Ghana who is the only beneficiary of this gold resource. Other countries in Africa and beyond are also benefiting from it and therefore have keen interest in the happenings and affairs of this country when it comes to this gold mining business. A countries resource belongs to that country but not alone meaning it’s also for the world and for the good will and welfare of all mankind. With all these in mind, it’s a call to all the big international mining companies to take the leadership role in the reclamation of lands, forest reserves, water bodies, animals and protect them for the future generation. It can be recalled that during the inauguration of President Nana Addo Dankwa Akuffo-Addo, the president made the following statement: “We should all recognize the danger we face by the alarming degradation of our environment and work to protect our water bodies, our forests, our lands and the oceans. We should learn and accept that we do not own the land but hold it in trust for generations yet unborn and, therefore, have a responsibility to take good care of it and all it contains.” These are the words of the President of the country implying the need to protect and conserve the natural resources we have for future generation.
2.0 ILLEGAL MINING AND RECLAMATION
2.1 Gold mining activities in Ghana
The name of Ghana was formerly called the Gold Coast before gaining independence on 6th March, 1957. The name “Gold Coast” suggested that the country was well gifted with significant amount of gold deposits and other minerals in her rich soil. Ghana’s gold mining industry has been around for about 2,500 years and is dominant in the southern part of the country (Jackson, 1992). According to history, the Portuguese were the earliest Europeans to arrive on the shores of the Gold Coast in 1471 (Addah, 2014). Led by Juan de Santarem and Pedro de Escobar, they made the discovery of alluvial gold along the coastal belt, between the Volta and the Ankobra rivers (Reisenberger, 2010). However, prior to the coming of the Europeans, the indigenous people mined gold in the traditional way and used it for ornaments used during important festivities such as festivals, installation of kings as well as exchanging it for other goods (Reisenberger, 2010). Today, the country is the second and tenth largest producer of gold in Africa and the world respectively (Revenue Watch Institute, 2011). However, mining in Ghana has not only been in the area of gold. Other minerals like bauxite, diamonds, limestone, manganese, rock salt, aluminium are mined in the country (Addah, 2014). Oil is the recent addition to the country’s mineral portfolio upon its discovery in 2010. In 2012, records showed that there were seven large-scale mining (Level A) companies in Ghana operating in different locations, mostly in the southern part of the country (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2012). Additionally, there were also more than one thousand registered small-scale mining companies in the industry (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2012). The mining industry contributes significantly to the development of Ghana’s economy. The gold industry creates employment opportunities for thousands Ghanaians, generates revenue for the government, and contributes to the Gross Domestic Product (Reisenberger, 2010). The mining companies are also obliged to pay royalties to the traditional stool lands in the communities in which they operate. Gold mining companies also pay royalties to the country. According the to the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of the Ghana Chamber of Mines, Dr Toni Aubynn, mining companies in Ghana paid an estimated amount of US$140 million in royalties to the country between January and June 2012 (Business Guide Newspaper, 2012). In 2011, the gold industry accounted for 6% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2012). Also in 2012, gold accounted for 42% of the country‘s gross export revenue, making it the leading export earner and a major contributor to the country’s balance of payment (Ghana Chamber of Mines, 2012). In spite of the numerous benefits that come along with mining gold such as employment and revenue, there has been evidence of detrimental effects on societies where gold is mined. For example, gold mining activities negatively affect farming. Farming is a common means of livelihood for most people living in the rural areas where gold is often mined. Farmlands are destroyed right from excavations, the use of dangerous explosives for breaking the rock and poisonous chemicals for washing the gold such cyanide and mercury (Addah, 2014). Most often, affected farmers and youth by way of creating a source of livelihood tend to engage in “galamsey” activities in these vicinities (Reisenberger, 2010). “Galamsey” is a term typically used to describe illegal mining activities in Ghana. The term was derived from the phrase “gather them and sell” (Addah, 2014). The artisans of this craft generally collects fragments of gold after the extraction and sell them to local buyers of gold and other minerals. These local buyers then sell them to a registered gold buyers such as the Precious Minerals Marketing Company (PMMC). These buyers use the prevailing market prices on the international market as a benchmark to determine the purchase price. Most of these galamsey operations are done in rural mining areas in the country and have been going on for so many years (Addah, 2014).
However, in the last few decades, the scale of galamsey operations have increased to alarming proportions with foreigners especially Chinese taking very active part in this illegal activity. In the early years of Ghana’s history, even before the coming of the Europeans, the indigenous people mined gold. They did it with less sophisticated technology by the riverside in the forest regions (Addah, 2014). Most of the techniques used then are still being practiced in galamsey operations today. A major reason for the increase in galamsey operations apart from a down turn in the general economic situation is the lands, which have been taken over by mining companies. These lands served as farmlands for the inhabitants of communities around mines. Due to the construction of the mines and their operations, farmlands, a major means of livelihoods are being destroyed (Reisenberger, 2010). The arable lands left for the people have also been taken over by galamsey operators causing serious effects on affected communities. Further, because galamsey generates significant revenue, galamsey operators who often have deep pockets often use the leverage that such high incomes give them to engage in antisocial behaviour (Addah, 2014). Additionally, due to its unstructured nature, galamsey operations often harbour criminals and this makes it very dangerous for the society. Children attracted by the prospect of quick easy cash are also caught up in the act because there seem to be no age restrictions for gaining employment for these operations, hence a dis-incentive to invest in costly education.
2.2 Illegal gold mining (Galamsey) in Ghana
Galamsey is a group unlicensed individuals who come together using crude and sometimes refine methods to mine gold and other minerals. Galamsey or illegal mining became a boom in Ghana in the 1970’s when there was a decline in Ghana’s economy during that time.
When the president of Ghana was sworn into office, he restated his commitment to protect the land and water bodies that has been destroyed as a result of illegal gold mining activities within the country. The president introduced measures to stop the illegalities, regularise the small-scale mining sector, take measures to prevent occurrence of illegalities in the future, including reform and strengthening of regulatory agencies as well as reform of mining laws by that cleaning the mess created by these galamsey people.
Illegal mining operators wash the ore, and discharge waste products into rivers and other water bodies that serve as raw water sources for drinking for various communities within the country. These wastes include mine tailings which are directly discharged into rivers bodies. Large amounts of waste materials released into the water, a large amount of suspended solids that directly contaminate aquatic habitats. Some mine tailings are toxic and pose serious health problems both to humans, animals and plant life. Most water bodies in Ghana over the years have been serving as drinking water for local communities and a raw water source for the Ghana Water Company. These water bodies have been heavily polluted as a result of illegal mining operations. The Birim, Offin, Ankobra, Tano and Pra Rivers for example, have become extremely expensive to treat for human consumption, as a result of the very poor water quality and its turbid nature. This has led to huge sums of money involved in the cost of treatment and production of water for consumption. Towns like Kyebi, Osino, Anyinam, Daboase and Bunso have seen this issue to a larger extent as Ghana Water Company Limited (GWCL) spends huge sums of money for production.
2.3 Causes of illegal mining activities in Ghana
Galamsey is mostly found in the rural mining areas in the country where there are lands rich in gold to exploited and mined. These areas include Tarkwa, Bogoso, Prestea, Obuasi, Mampong, Nsutem, Osino and Abirim, just to mention a few. The unemployment rate in Ghana is very high especially within the illiterates hence resulting in their engagement in the galamsey business in Ghana. According to the Africa Economic Outlook “the population in the 15 - 24 age group has an unemployment rate of 25.6 %, twice that of the 25 - 44 age group and three times that of the 45-64 age group” (Africa Economic Outlook, 2012). According to the International Labour Organization (ILO, 1999), an estimated 13 million people work directly in galamsey worldwide (Hilson et al., 2010). There are also an extra 100 million people indirectly dependent on galamsey (Danielsen et al., 2000; CASM, 2009 qtd. in Ingram et al., 2011). In rural Ghana, the dominant occupation is farming. Other people also turn to partake in income generating activities that easily come up such as fishing and rearing livestock among others. In this case, people engage in galamsey because it is the alternative source of livelihood. In other African countries, both small-scale mining and galamsey provides employment for many people (Addah, 2014). In Ghana, galamsey employs about 170,000 people (Adjei et al., 2012). It employed 1000 in Burundi and between 50,000 to 350,000 in Zimbabwe in 1999 (Nyambe et. al., 2009). Another reason people engage in galamsey is poverty. According to Nyambe et. al., (2009), poverty is one of the major reasons people indulge in galamsey. Poverty in most African countries is high and Ghana is not an exception. As part of the Millennium Development Goals set by the United Nations, Ghana and many other countries are required to reduce poverty levels. In a research paper, ‘Small-Scale Mining and Its Impact on Poverty in Namibia: A Case Study of Miners in the Erongo Region’, it was established that small-scale mining including galamsey contributes to poverty alleviation (Nyambe et al., 2009). This is because it creates employment and income earning opportunities and sustains local business such as trading. In Ghana, galamsey can be seen as a lucrative source of employment for those who engage in it (Addah, 2014). They earn more than enough to escape the poverty line. One other event that sometimes contributes to the occurrence of galamsey activities is the rainfall patterns in the country. According to Kuma et al. (2010), farmers in rural mining communities cultivate their crops during the rainy seasons. During the dry season where farming activities come to a standstill especially in the northern part of Ghana, some farmers engage in galamsey to earn some extra money. Also, some crops take a longer time to mature such as cocoa and rubber. Hence, to support their families and avoid idleness, they engage in galamsey (Addah, 2014).
2.4 Impacts of illegal mining activities on livelihoods
One of the main negative effects of mining is the high cost of living in communities within mining concessions. All the indices like food, accommodation, health, water, etc that make a decent life have a price tag beyond the reach of the average person. This makes living in such areas or communities very difficult. At the same time, the traditional sources of recreation and livelihood of the people are seriously impaired by mining activities, a situation that sparks off or aggravates other social problems. There are several factors responsible for the high cost of living in mining communities. First, there is the disparity in incomes in favour of mining company staffs. Secondly, the mining industry has withdrawn a significant percentage of the labour force from agriculture and other income generating activities by taking farmland away and holding out the false promise of employment (Osei-bagyina, 2012) . The fall in food production in some mining communities with relatively high population and high unemployment, accounts for high food prices (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001).
Illegal mining in the communities results in the degradation of lands when the top soils rich in nutrients for crop and food production are destroyed. This does not help farmers as crops planted on such soils results in poor yields. Investigations has indicated that harvested crops in a season reduces drastically leading to food scarcity within the communities during the course of the year. This makes living conditions for the indigenous very difficult as most of these farmers depends on produce from their farms throughout the year. The illegal mining dug pits even pose threats to the indigenous as they are not covered by galamseyers after the mining activities. If farmers are not careful, they can even fall in them as they are even filled with water leading to the death of the indigenous.
Many mining boom towns swell with job seekers and their families and nearby farmers displaced by the mine. They converge on towns and cities, increasing the demand for social services and in many cases changing the character of a place. Increased alcoholism, prostitution, drug use and other crime can increase with the influx of job seekers. The influx of mining activities has brought both migrant and resident sex workers to mining communities. The increased incidence of HIV/AIDS in mining areas, has been attributed to the flourishing sex trade. Harsh economic conditions have also led to growing drug usage in the area, particularly among the prostitutes and migrant illegal gold miners (Armstrong, 2008). The major issue that the illegal mining activities in Ghana has resulted in is the destruction and pollution of water bodies. Many activities and sources associated with a mine site can contribute toxic and nontoxic materials to surface waters. Open pits, tailings ponds, ore and subore stockpiles, waste rock dumps, and heap and dump leach piles are all potentially significant sources of toxic pollutants. Impacts on surface waters include the build-up of sediments that may be contaminated with heavy metals or other toxics, short- and long-term reductions in pH levels (particularly for lakes and reservoirs), destruction or degradation of aquatic habitat, and contamination of drinking water supplies and other human health issues (U.S. EPA, 1997). Erosion can be a major concern at mining sites because of the large area of land disturbed by mining operations and the large quantities of earthen materials exposed at sites. Erosion may cause significant loadings of sediments (and any entrained chemical pollutants) to nearby water bodies, especially during severe storm events and high snow melt periods. The ultimate deposition of the sediment may occur in surface waters or it may be deposited within the flood plains of a stream valley (U.S. EPA, 1997). This results in water contamination and further diseases to indigenous who drink from the polluted water. Air pollution resulting from mining activities comes about by the generation of dust, noise, emissions of black smoke, vibration and mine gases especially during drilling, blasting, crushing and mineral beneficiation (Gawu, 2009). The activities that generate particulate matter also include site clearance and road building, loading and haulage, vehicular movement, ore and waste rock handling as well as heap leach crushing by companies doing heap leach processing. (Osei-bagyina, 2012). The sources of noise and vibration in mining communities include mobile equipment, air blasts and vibration from blasting and other machinery. The effect of high-pitched and other noises is known to include damage to the auditory system, cracks in buildings, stress and discomfort to inhabitants and indigenous (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001).
2.5 Lands
Illegal mining in Ghana has generated millions of dollars into miner’s pockets and enriched the lives and living standards of many Ghanaians. Nevertheless the benefits of mining, many communities and organizations see the profits achieved at a high cost detrimental to the environment namely: access to potable water, loss of biodiversity, vegetation cover, soil fertility, agricultural lands, increased fragmentation as well as decline in the livelihoods of individuals, groups and communities. These have over the years remained issues of great concern to conservationists, ecologists, policy-makers and all environmental advocates. Surface mining by illegal miners is perhaps the greatest agent of land degradation, utilizing over 13% out of the 240,000 km2 of the remaining forest in Ghana (Awotwi, 2003). In the Tarkwa area alone, it is estimated that over 70% of the land previously used for farming activities is under mine concessions (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). Recently, the president of the republic of Ghana in May 2013 inaugurated a taskforce to look at the activities of illegal surface mining. Mining competition with farmlands often deprive farmers the right to ownership and employment. This situation usually frays the cultural, social and economic development of many farming communities (Mate, 1998). Farmlands used in the production of cocoa for national use and export have been destroyed paving way for illegal mining and this has destroyed vast lands in the country. In spite of all these concerns, many view the industry as a necessary evil whose resources are required for development and at the same time need to be conserved. This therefore makes it more imperative for communities, mining companies and regulatory agencies to ensure that the nexus between accrued benefits and conservation of environmental resources such as lands are grounded on ecologically sustainable principles (Grigg et al., 1998). Depicted in Plate 1 is the degraded land area at Nsutam due to illegal gold mining business.
Plate 1: Degraded land at Nsutam
2.6 Reclamation of the destroyed lands
Looking at the current degraded lands in the country and the way illegal mining in happening in the country, if care is not taken and serious reclamation done within the shortest possible time, there will be no lands for mining, farming and building of houses in the future. It has therefore been widely recognized since the late 20th century that reclamation is a desirable and necessary remedy ‘‘to return the illegal mined areas to an acceptable environmental condition whether for resumption of the former land use or for a new use’’ (Redgwell, 1992), or to allow such lands to achieve their optimum economic value as much as possible (Bastida, 2002). In addition, reclamation is generally considered as an ongoing programme because of growing environmental effects as mining evolves through the different stages of development (Walde, 1993). According to Lamb and Gilmour (2003), reclamation is widely used to refer to revegetation of degraded sites such as mined or salt affected lands. It aims to recover the productivity of a degraded site mostly using exotic tree species. The original biodiversity is not recovered although the protective function and many of the ecological services may be reestablished. Mining is a temporary use of land and mined land reclamation is clearly justified from the perspective of sustainable development. Thus, it has become an important part of the sustainable development strategy in many countries (Gao et. al., 1998). The reclamation process will involve earthworks/slope battering to get a visual blend of the disturbed area and the nearby undisturbed land. The slopes will be buttered at an angle not exceeding. Immediately after the slope buttering will be the spreading of oxide material. This will bind all the soil particles together to enhance the stability of the land surface. The top soil will then be spread on the surface of the oxide material to promote plant growth. Soil amendments such as poultry droppings and cow dungs will also be used to improve the fertility of the soil for faster plant growth rate. Fertilizers will be applied as and when necessary. Crest drains will then be constructed to check run-off and control erosion. Bamboo stripes, Vetiver grass, Gliricidia sepium stumps and stones will be used as vegetative barriers to control erosion. Jute mat from some trees will also be used on the surface to control run-off. The system of strips of Vetiver grass (Vetiveria zizanioides) has been widely promoted as a vegetative barrier to runoff (Greenfield, 1988; National Research Council, 1993; Young, 1997). It is established that Vetiver grows under a wide range of climates. It is relatively non-invasive and non- competitive and can be established as narrow strips, 0.5-1.0 m wide. It is a tufted perennial grass, which creates a dense physical barrier or filter to runoff. Growing of cover crops such as Puereria phaseoloides and Centrosema pubescens follows after the earthworks/slope battering, spreading of oxide material, application of soil amendments and construction of crest drains. The cover crops are raised in order to further enhance erosion control. Tree species such as Acacia magium, Gliricidia sepium, Senna siamea and Leucaena leucocephala will be planted for the soil to be compacted and stability during the reclamation process.
2.7 Water resources in Ghana
Ghana’s water resources are categorised into ground water and surface water; however, there are also impoundments or reservoirs. The sources of surface water resources in Ghana are from three river systems, namely the Coastal river systems, South-Western and Volta (Ghana National Water Policy, 2007). Pra rivers constitute the South-Western river systems. The Tordzie/Aka, Densu, Ayensu, Ochi-Nakwa and Ochi-Amissah form the Coastal river systems (Ghana National Water Policy, 2007). These river systems make up 70, 22 and 8%, respectively, of the total land area of about 240,000 km2. In addition, the sole natural freshwater lake in Ghana is Lake Bosomtwi. This is a meteoritic crater lake located in the forest zone, with a surface area of 50 km2 and a maximum depth of 78m (Ghana National Water Policy, 2007; WRC Ghana 2012). Having access to safe water is something no human being should be without because once existence on the surface of the earth hugely depends on water. Current estimates shows that there are two billion people in the world who lack access to safe drinking water (Onda et. al., 2012). The implications of drinking unsafe, contaminated water are numerous and still not fully understood. Drinking microbially contaminated water leads to diarrheal diseases, such as cholera. Each year about 760,000 children under the age of five die from diarrheal disease and it is the second leading cause of death in children (WHO, 2014). Additionally, diarrheal disease weakens the immune system leading to higher risk of other diseases as well. There are also a number of other diseases, such as guinea worm, which are transmitted through contact with contaminated water when people use contaminated surface waters for drinking and washing. Further, high frequency of diarrheal episodes in children leads to environmental enteropathy which is the decreased ability of the intestine to absorb nutrients. This leads to malnutrition which has even more implications such as stunting and decreased intelligence (Korpe et. al., 2012). Overall, having access to safe drinking water is a major factor in preventing deaths and improving quality of life for low-income households around the world. The quality of naturally occurring surface waters and groundwater some years back was generally good except until the recent phenomenon of localized pollution due to the discharge of sewage into water bodies from industrial and domestic activities, leaching of fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, with the most recent and alarming canker being illegal artisanal mining denoted (‘galamsey’) (USAID, 2011). This has become a constant menace as almost all water resources located close to mining areas are seriously polluted. The alarming rate of this destruction has prompted the government of Ghana under the hospices of the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources to designate special task force to fight this menace and safeguard our water resources. Also use of chemicals in fishing coupled with rapid population growth has entirely left our water resources ungovernable (Nsubuga et al. 2014). Discharges of untreated sewage from municipal waste have resulted in serious pollution of water in most urban settings. Lagoons and Rivers situated near industrial areas are gradually perishing due to the discharge of untreated municipal waste from domestic and industrial effluent that causes odour and nutrient enrichment leading to algal bloom. An example of such a polluted lagoon in Ghana is the Korle Lagoon in Accra (WRC, 2015). Water quality is an embodiment of all aspect of physical, chemical and biological features. The main water quality characteristics of streams, rivers and lakes include the physical, chemical and biological features which are of prime importance to water engineers (Owusu et al. 2016). Plate 2 depicts current state of River Birim at Nsutam due to illegal gold mining activity in the community.
Plate 2: Current state of River Birim at Nsutem
2.7.1 Reclamation of polluted water bodies
Mining companies extract water in vast quantities from rivers and lakes and for washing during the mining process interrupting the natural channel of the water bodies. This has been achieved by illegal miners and the need for reclamation. The physical construction of illegal mining sites has destroyed water systems, while associated industrial processes produce acid rain that falls back to earth and further pollutes water bodies. Reclamation of the water bodies will involve dredging in areas where serious illegal mining has resulted in great siltation thereby destroying the natural channels of the water bodies. The dredging will ensure that, the natural channels of the water bodies is destroyed for free flow of the water from upstream to downstream. By that, polluted water will be carried downstream towards other large water bodies and finally to the sea. The company will also embark on bioengineering to protect the shores of the river by planting appropriate grasses and trees to make sure soils at the shores of the water bodies do not fall back into the water bodies for further pollution. The reclamation process for the water bodies will again involve river banks protection as different species of trees such as Acacia magium, Gliricidia sepium, Senna siamea, Leucaena leucocephala other tree species good for river banks protection will be planted to for protection of the river banks.
The reclamation process for the water bodies will be done in collaboration Water Resources Commission, Ghana Water Company and Forestry Commissions and Water Research Institutes of Ghana. Experts from Water Research Institute will assess the water bodies as to whether they still possess their natural water quality for human consumptions. Areas which do not possess this quality will be further tested and treated. Flood control assessments will also be done to avoid overflow of river banks during the dredging process to avoid destruction of arable lands, farmlands and vegetation’s in the future. If dredging is not well done and sizable channels sizes created, it may lead to flooding in the future especially during the rainy seasons in Ghana.
2.8 Forest Reserves destruction
The growing effect of illegal mining activities on our primary forest cover is devastating and should be addressed with all seriousness. Around 1900, Ghana had about 8.8 million hectares of primary forest and due to illegal mining and deforestation, this has reduced to greater extent. By 1950, the total land area of forest reserves had been reduced to 4.2 million hectares. But by 1999, only about 1.5 million hectares was left! In 2010, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimated Ghana’s deforestation rate at 135 395 hectares per year. There is the need for the replacement of lost forest reserves as we make use of timber and trees, yet the rate of afforestation and re-afforestation combined is only about 20 000 hectares per year. Looking at the figures above and the rate of illegal mining and forest destruction within the country, a time will come soon when there will no forest for future generations. Gold has been mined in our country for over 500 years for the economic growth. Large-scale gold mining activities begun by the British in the early 19th century. Before then, small-scale gold mining was being undertaken by the indigenous population in isolated areas in the country. But so careful and efficient were our forefathers in the gold mining business in that, they never threatened our forest reserves with widespread land degradation and cutting of trees. If care is not taken, the last tree in Ghana will die and carbon dioxide concentration within the country will die hence the need for the protection of these forest reserves in the country. Since 1992, ruthless practices have been introduced by different groups into small-scale gold mining, at the same time as a major invasion of foreigners into small-scale mining, or “galamsey” has occurred as everyone tries to explore the precious mineral. This has been happening on a greater platform despite the fact that the laws of Ghana expressly make small scale-mining the sole preserve of Ghanaians.
The boom in small scale mining operations, popularly known as ‘galamsey’, is fast becoming one of the major factors contributing to the rapid decline of forest resources in Ghana. Forests play important roles in the maintenance and provision of goods and services that are beneficial to all segments of society. As a natural resource pool, forests store and recycle nutrients, protect land and water resources, provide valuable genetic resources and habitats for wildlife. In Ghana, the forestry sector contributes about 2-3% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), down from about 10% a decade ago (FDMP, 2016). Nonetheless, the forestry sector provides direct employment to over 100,000 Ghanaians and indirect employment to over 2.5 million people (GSS, 2014). In addition, timber exports earn the country about US$180 million per annum, which accounts for about 1.5% of total exports (FDMP, 2016). Despite these benefits derived from the forestry sector, forests in Ghana are under serious threat partly due to deforestation and forest degradation. The rate of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana has been on the rise in recent decades. From the country's original forest cover of 8.2 million hectares from the onset of the last century, only an estimated 1.6 million hectares remain. Currently, the deforestation rate is about 2.5% of the total land area of Ghana leading to an annual loss of about 135,000 ha. For example, between 1990 and 2000, the forest cover loss was about 387,256 ha (2%) whereas a total area of 531,364 ha (3%) was lost for the period 2000-2010 In most of the regions, large tracts of forests have been encroached and degraded by both mining companies and galamsey operators. For instance, about 4.4%, representing 2.5 km2, of the total area of the Offinso Shelterbelt Forest Reserve in the Ashanti region were degraded by illegal mining in 5 years ((Boadi et al., 2016). In addition, mining activities impact negatively on agricultural activities (e.g. destruction of farms), environment (pollution of water bodies), and on the social life (e.g. increase in number of school dropouts among the youth) of the fringe communities that host them (CSIR – FRIG, 2017).
2.8.1 Impacts of illegal mining on the vegetation
· Massive destruction of vegetation and water bodies
· Loss of crops such as cocoa and oil palm plantation as well as food crop farms
· Habitat loss for some plant species and wildlife will affect biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem processes, which pose as threats to life of some animals and plants.
· The negative impacts on agricultural activities – the source of livelihood for the rural people and a key contributor to GDP is costing the nation greatly.
2.8.2 Reclamation of destroyed forest reserves
To tackle the menace of illegal mining and remediate the adverse social, ecological and environmental impacts, holistic approach ought to be engaged. This company will make use of the Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) approach as a long term measure. This approach seeks to restore degraded landscapes such as mined sites by addressing socio-economic, ecological and environmental dimensions of reclaiming the degraded lands. The approach ensures that economic development and livelihoods of people are taken care of in a manner that guarantees ecological resilience and sustainability of the landscape. Different types of trees suitable for the soil and area will be planted to replenish the lost trees within all the affected forest reserves. This will be done by collaborating with Forest Commission of Ghana at regional and district levels to replace the lost forest reserves. There will be the creating of suitable rooting medium for good tree growth that is no less than four feet deep and made of topsoil, weathered sandstone, and or the best available material. Loosely grade top soil substitutes will be established in step one to create a non – compacted growth medium. There will be use of groundcovers that are compatible with growing trees, plant two or more species of trees; early successional species for wildlife and soil stability, then commercially valuable crop trees. The company will make use of proper tree planting techniques during the reclamation process.
2.9 Reclamation by gold mining companies and intervention in the destroyed natural resources in Ghana
Reclamation by gold mining companies in Ghana has been a well thought through process to reclaim lands, water bodies and natural resources after the life span of the mining. For instance, the draft reclamation plan by Newmont for the Ahafo project (2005) laid down a well-planned strategy and process to bring back the used land to its original state after several years of mining in Ahafo and same for the Akyem project. This is same for all the international gold mining companies like AngloGold Ashanti, Gold Fields Ghana Ltd, Abosso Goldfields Limited, Golden Star Ltd, Chirano Gold Mines Ltd, Adamus Resources Limited etc. This cannot be said of the illegal mining companies as they don’t have such planned strategies hence the destruction of lands and natural resources and the pollution of water bodies in Ghana. Illegal gold mining activities has been in Ghana over the years but the rise in the illegalities from 2010 has brought a great havoc to the country Ghana and the need to take a critical look at it and abrogate it. A tour in Osino in the eastern region of Ghana in the 1990’s gives clear evidence of illegal mining sites but done in a cautious way with the protection of natural resources. This cannot be said of 2021 after exploring land sites within the region as there is total disaster and destruction of natural resources. The Nana Addo Dankwa Akuffo Addo government has taken up the mantle to battle this canker by setting the records straight and restoring these natural resources to a state which will be beneficial to his generation and the future generation. The illegal mining activities within the country needs regulated and if possible to a higher degree, abolished paving way for the establishment of well-defined structured international gold mining companies which will employ this same illegal miner to protect the resources for now and the future. In trying to redefine the illegal mining activities, government sorts to bring together the small scale mining companies together and given license to establish a bigger mining company that meets international standards. This is good but believes the government should consult the well established companies that meets international standards so that they collaborate them for guidance and control. By doing so, the establishment of the gold mine will meet international standards and as such natural resources will be protected.
Ghana is a rich country and if nothing to boost of, one can talk of the rich gold buried in the ground. If the government will set things right, people understand the system and need to take it cool when it comes to enrichment in life, the country can become great countries like UK, USA, Canada, South Africa etc. The government should therefore take the leadership role, task the security forces, Environmental Protection Agency, Water resources Commission and collaborate with the well-established gold mining companies both locally and internationally and other stake holders to reclaim these natural resources for mother Ghana. Countries like Lybia, Liberia, Ethiopia, Burkina Faso etc. do not experience crises and Civil war for nothing. For every action, there is a cause and reason for its happening so the need to think twice when doing something.
2.10 Importance of the reclamation process
• Building food security through increased agricultural production;
• Creation of opportunities for marginalized groups to access land;
• Creation of employment;
• Increasing the skills and capacity of youths to find employment;
• Preventing conflict and enhancing peace and stability;
• Protection of traditional activities such as indigenous medicines; and
• Improving the aesthetic beauty of the land.
• Restoration of authority to original landowners;
• Increasing the monetary value of the land;
• Reduction in environmental health hazards;
• Creation of safe playgrounds for children.
3.0 STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION AND CONTRIBUTION
3.1 Government intervention in the protection of natural resources
Government intervention in the protection of natural resources destroyed by illegal mining. Every country boost of its natural resources which when harnessed well generates billions of pounds sterling for national development and helping other countries. Ghana is no exception as she is blessed with natural resources such as gold, manganese, oil, cocoa and this generates huge sums of money yearly for national development. Ghana formerly called gold coast is blessed with great amount of gold buried in the ground and this is mined both legally and illegally yearly by the government and youth of the country. Due to the enrichment of the land with gold, the income and money generated each year, every tom dick and harry wants to harness this resources and this has been a curse to the country. This has led to the destruction of lands, forest, water bodies resulting in panic and fear by the citizens for the future. Illegal gold mining activities in Ghana started long time but since 2010, it has been on the rise resulting in the destruction of state resources. As I speak in 2021, illegal mining activities has been put to a halt by the Akuffo Addo led government to remedy the illegalities and the canker in the country. There is a movement ‘fixthecounty’ calling on the government of Ghana to fix the mess created by the greedy citizens as a result of the overlooking by the government. The government is putting up strategies and resources together to delete the illegal mining activites and create a healthy environment for the mining sector where Ghana gold will be mined in an international standard way for the benefit of all whiles protecting the natural’s resources for the future.
3.2 Security services intervention in the reclamation process
The security services in Ghana such as the military, police, play a major role in the protection and maintenance of state resources. The security services in the country are the first point of call when there is crises as a result of bad human behaviour and attitudes such as being exhibited by the illegal miners in the country. There is therefore the need for the various security services and other agencies to be on board in sacking all greedy citizens who are destroying the lands, water bodies, forest reserves out of the system. Once this is done, mining companies which meet international standards should be established and this same greedy citizens employed in the sector to accomplish the mission they started while protecting natural resources for the future.
3.3 Stakeholder participation in the reclamation process
In life, in unity together we stand as one. The various mining companies should not see themselves as private hence on their own. There is the need for stakeholder collaboration by all sectors in this reclamation. Stakeholders such as Water Resources Commission, Ghana Water Company, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Forestry Commission, Fisheries Commission, Municipal and District Assemblies, Owners of Stools and Lands, Kings, Security Services, Water Research Institutes needs to collaborate and work together towards the reclamation of these natural resources for the now and future generations. All these stakeholders need to play their role in the reclamation process and once this is done, each of the reclaimed sectors such as forestry, water, lands etc. are handled over for better supervision, protection, use and maintenance.
4 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE INTERVENTION BY MINING COMPANIES IN THE RECLAMATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND MONITORING
4.1 Justification for the intervention by the mining companies in the reclamation
· Reclaimed natural resources such as lands, forests, water bodies and mountains will be saved for the now and future generations.
· Reclamation of water bodies such as river Birim in the eastern region will yield a surface water good for drinking, bathing, washing and for irrigation by farmers in dry seasons farming.
· Abrogation of deforestations will protect the forest reserves for recreation, tourisms and reduction in carbon dioxide in the system which may lead to extreme climate change.
· Reclamation of degraded lands will results in rich fertile lands for the production of cocoa, food and other cash crops for export to generate money for national development.
· The gold mining business by rich companies like AngloGold, Newmont, Persues mines etc. are on lands and nothing else. Therefore if all lands in Ghana are destroyed or no more. OR the government of Ghana who is the main custodian of lands in the country decide not to lease the lands or ask them to stop mining? Where will such mining companies get lands for the mining and sustenance of their companies? Hence the need for their intervention in this situation.
· Again if Ghana is no more, where will this mining companies be sited to mine gold, if all surface water resources or water bodies are destroyed today and all aquifers depleted of water where abstraction of water from underground for human use which is now the order of the day by this mineral water companies. What will the current generation drink and the unborn future? Hence the need for the intervention of all mining companies in this ‘#fixthecounty’ company.
· Mining companies need not see themselves as a private body hence on their own. No? If a civil war breaks up today where there is destruction of lands and properties, where will be their mining companies? They should know that they are part of Ghana and the need for their intervention in difficult situations like the reclamation of these natural resources in Ghana for now and the future.
· With this reclamation intervention, illegal gold mining sites can be converted into tourism sites (Eco park) and recreational centers to serve community and country.
· Reclamation of degraded lands using coconut as a crop for the process will result in the mass production of coconut in Ghana and its associated refinements into products for the benefit of mankind and all worldwide.
4.2 Monitoring
Procedures for short-term and long-term monitoring of the mine sites after reclamation will be done and it’s going to be a continual operational monitoring program. The items scheduled to be monitored below should not be considered as an all-inclusive monitoring list, and will be updated as mining and reclamation activities progress. The reclamation process will involve several activities such as a detoxification program will be implemented for the subsurface drainage water for all water bodies affected by illegal mining. Periodic reviews of the land sites and forests will occur with the EPA at an agreed upon frequency to ensure that environmental reporting is accurate and up to date in relation to actual conditions with both current and planned activities.
4.2.1 Short Term Monitoring
Short term monitoring will be done right after the completion of the reclamation process. Short term monitoring will consist of monitoring the groundwater monitoring wells, dust monitoring, revegetation progress, surface water run off quantity and quality, open pit condition monitoring, pit lake water quality and water quantity and quality. Monitoring will be performed once per month for approximately three years. Monitoring groundwater, surface water, and pit lake water will consist of sampling for a selected list of parameters within the affected sites. There will be the installation of air monitoring stations for sampling of airborne dust particles. Again, there will be the revegetation inspection for erosion control, biodiversity and growth within the illegal mining areas.
4.2.2 Long Term Monitoring
Long term monitoring will consist of a combination of observations, well measurements, and sampling for water and air quality on a less intensive schedule than the short term monitoring plan. The reclaimed land, water and forest reserves will be handled over the various agencies within the government sector for long term monitoring. Some of these agencies will include, EPA, WRC, Forestry commission, Ghana Water Company, Water Research Institute. The proposed schedule for groundwater and surface water sampling, and site observations will be done once per month for 10 years. Lab testing for treated water for all the affected water bodies will be semi – annually for about 10 years. Monitoring of ground water, surface water, and dug pit lake water will consist of sampling for a selected list of parameters.
5 CONCLUSION
Even though big international gold mining companies are using international standards when it comes to gold mining in Ghana, illegal miners will still exist also seeking for the natural resources and money. If strict protocols and procedures are not put in place to regularize the actions and activities of these illegal gold mining activities, lands, forest reserves, water bodies and other areas will be destroyed. Illegal mining resulting in degradable lands will affect the agriculture, forestry sector, lands and water sector. This will have future effect on food production, streams and surface water pollution, low yield aquifer recharge and if possible, pollution to a certain degree. This therefore calls for stakeholder participation and collaboration of various sectors in fighting illegal gold mining activities and protecting the natural resources (water bodies, lands, forest reserves, wildlife’s) in Ghana. Stakeholders such as Water Resources Commission, Ghana Water Company, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Forestry Commission, Fisheries Commission, Lands commission, Municipal and District Assemblies, Owners of Stools and Lands, Kings, Security Services. Water Research Institutes and other research institutions needs to collaborate and work together towards the reclamation of these natural resources for the now and future generations. Once reclamation is complete, there should be continuous short and long term monitoring for affective use of these resources for the generation today and the future.
Acknowledgment
Grateful I am to the Almighty God for the wisdom and ability in getting this research work done successfully. Another gratitude goes to the people of Nsutam, a gold mining town in Eastern Region - Ghana which was used as the study area for this research work. Final appreciation goes to anyone who contributed to the success of this paper. God bless you all.
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